Finland Finland (Finnish: Suomi) is the fifth largest country in Europe, excluding the Russian republic. Its population center is farther north than that of any other country except Iceland; and its capital, Helsinki, is, after Reykjavik, Iceland, the world's northernmost capital city. About one-third of the country lies north of the Arctic Circle. Finland is bordered on the north by Norway, on the east by the Russian republic, on the south by the Gulf of Finland, and on the west by the Gulf of Bothnia and Sweden. The country is one of the leading manufacturers and exporters of timber and paper products in the world, and its economy depends heavily on the forestry industry. LAND AND RESOURCES Most of Finland is lowland. One-third of its area lies below 100 m (330 ft), two-thirds below 200 m (660 ft), and almost nine-tenths below 300 m (985 ft). The highest elevations are in the extreme northwest where Haltiatunturi (Lapp: Haldetsokka), the highest point on Finland, rises to 1,328 m (4,357 ft). An ancient granite bedrock shield underlies Finland and is crossed by numerous major fracture lines that appear as gorges, long, narrow lakes, or elongated bays at the coast. Physical Regions Finland has three main physical regions: the coastal lowlands, the lake district, and the northern uplands. The coastal lowlands, about 65-130 km (40-80 mi) wide, extend along the indented coastlines of the Gulf of Finland on the south and the Gulf of Bothnia on the west. Thousands of rocky islands lie off the coasts, the principal group being the Aland (Finnish: Ahvenanmaa) Islands. The lake district is the interior plateau of southern central Finland. This lake-studded region is heavily forested and has numerous swamps and bogs. Many lakes are connected by short rivers. The northern upland, much of which lies north of the Arctic Circle, has poor soils and is the most sparsely populated region of Finland. In the far north, arctic forests and swamps give way to tundra--a frozen, forestless region. Soils The most common soil is till--an unstratified mixture of clay, sand, and gravel--which covers the bedrock almost everywhere. Large areas of clay are found in south and southwest Finland. Peat covers more than 30% of the land area. The soil is usually 3-4 m (10-13 ft) thick but in some places is as thick as 110 m (360 ft). Clay is best suited for agriculture, till and rocky soil for forestry. Climate Finland's climate exhibits both maritime and continental influences. Surrounding seas cool the climate on the coast in spring but warm it in fall. The climate becomes more continental, that is, more extreme, toward the east and north. The extreme north, however, exhibits a marine climate because of the influence of the Arctic Ocean. Rainfall decreases from 700 mm (28 in) in southern Finland to 400 mm (16 in) in northern Finland. The heaviest rainfall is from August to September, the lightest from February to April. The summer lasts 2 to 4 months, the growing season 4 to 6. Drainage Finland is known as a land of lakes and islands. The 187,880 lakes average 7 m (23 ft) deep and usually have indented shorelines and islands. They are connected by rivers and canals to form long lake-systems. Finland's largest lake, Saimaa, is actually a system of more than 100 interconnected smaller lakes. Finland's rivers are short and shallow, the longest being located in the north. The coast of Finland is more than 1,100 km (700 mi) long, but because it is heavily indented, the shoreline measures nearly 5,000 km (3,000 mi). Finland has about 30,000 coastal islands, of which the southwest archipelago is unusual for its shape and beauty. Vegetation and Animal Life Finland is situated entirely within the northern zone of coniferous forests. Forests cover about 65% of the total area. Pines constitute 45% of the forests, spruces 37%, and birches 15%. Southern deciduous trees such as oaks, lindens, elms, and ashes appear in the southwest. Flora includes 1,227 different species of herbaceous plants and shrubs, 800 species of moss, and more than 1,000 species of lichen. Among the fauna are 67 species of mammals, including bear, elk (moose), and wolf); 370 species of birds; and 77 species of fish, 33 of which are economically valuable. Resources Forests are Finland's most important natural resource, and forest products are a major source of national income. The underlying bedrock contains a diversity of minor mineral deposits, including copper, nickel, iron, zinc, chromium, lead, and iron pyrites. In addition, limestone and granite are quarried for building materials. The small mineral deposits make mining uneconomical, although a large mine in eastern Finland produces quantities of copper and zinc. The country has abundant water supplies, but water must often be transported from long distances to the population centers. PEOPLE Racially the Finns are mixed, most being either of East Baltic stock (living mainly in eastern Finland) or of Nordic stock (in the west and south, especially on the coast and in Ahvenanmaa). A small number of Lapps live in northern Finland (see LAPLAND). Other ethnic groups include about 2,800 Russian speakers, 2,500 English speakers, 2,200 German speakers, 5,500 Gypsies, and 1,000 Jews. The Finnish language belongs to the Finno-Ugric family of URAL-ALTAIC LANGUAGES; it is related to Estonian and Hungarian. At least seven main dialects can be distinguished, each of which has numerous local accents. Finnish is spoken by 93.6% of the population, Swedish by 6%. Most of the Swedish-speaking people live in the southern coastal area, Ahvenanmaa, and on the coast of Ostrobothnia. About 1,726 persons speak Lapp, which is also of Finno-Ugric origin. Finnish and Swedish are both official languages. The constitution of Finland allows freedom of worship. Members of the Evangelical Lutheran church constitute 88.4% of the population; the Orthodox church, 1.1%; the Roman Catholic church, 0.1%; other denominations, 0.8%; and those with no church affiliation, 9.6%. The Lutheran and Orthodox churches are recognized as official state churches. Demography Although Finland is about ten times the size of the Netherlands, its population is only about one-third as large. The southern, industrialized third of the country is the most densely populated, with 46.8 persons per sq km (121.2 per sq mi); the northern two-thirds of the country averages 9.1 inhabitants per sq km (23.6 per sq mi). Scattered settleents are characteristic of the countryside. Rapid urbanization began after World War II, when 425,000 refugees from Soviet-occupied land were resettled, mostly in the cities. The largest cities are HELSINKI, TAMPERE, TURKU, and Lahti in the south, and Oulu in the north. Education and Health The first stage in education is a compulsory 9-year comprehensive school. The second stage comprises either a 3-year senior secondary school or a vocational school. Graduates of senior secondary schools must take a matriculation examination. Those who pass it can apply to universities, technical schools, or other institutions of higher education. The standard of national health care is high in Finland. The National Health Act of 1972 abolished physicians' fees and provided for the creation of municipal health-care centers throughout the country. Individual licensed physicians also exist. The number of hospital beds in relation to population is one of the highest in the world. The Arts The oldest FINNISH LITERATURE is in the form of epic poetry, legends, stories, and proverbs. Elias Lonnrot (1802-84) collected folk literature and published the Kalevala, the Finnish national epic. Important writers include Aleksis Kivi (1834-72), Minna CANTH, Frans Emil SILLANPAA, Mika WALTARI, and Vaino Linna. Eiono Leino (1879-1926) is perhaps the best-known poet; Edith Sodergran (1892-1923) was pioneer of the modernist movement in Scandinavia. Important contemporary poets include Paavo Haavikko, Eeva-Liisa Manner, and Pentti Saarikoski. The best-known Finnish composer outside Finland is Jean SIBELIUS. Others include Fredrik Pacius (1809-91), Oskar Merikanto (1868-1924), and Aarre Merikanto (1893-1958), Leevi Madetoja (1887-1947), and Uuno Klami (1900-61). Aulis Sallinen and Joonas Kokkonen are major contemporary composers. The Kaustinen Folk Festival draws large crowds every summer. (See also SCANDINAVIAN MUSIC.) The high standard of imaginative Finnish architecture can be seen even in old church buildings. Eero SAARINEN, Eliel SAARINEN, Wivi Lonn (1872-1966), and Lars Sonck (1870-1956) were pioneers of the national romantic style. Neoclassicism was introduced by J. S. Siren (1889-1961), and functionalism by Alvar AALTO. Aalto is also well known as an urban planner, interior designer, and industrial and furniture designer. Raimo and Raili Pietila are contemporary architects well known for their unconventional, expressionistic style. Albert Edelfelt (1854-1905) and Akseli Gallen-Kallela (1865-1931) are representatives of the golden era of Finnish painting; their ideas were derived from history and the Kalevala. Helene Schjerbeck (1862-1946) was a leader in the break with realism; Hugo Simberg (1873-1917) was one of the first symbolic painters; Tvko Sallinen (1879-1955) was a well-known expressionist, and Vilho Lampi (1898-1936) represented primitivism. ECONOMIC ACTIVITY Finland's most important industry has traditionally been wood processing, including production of pulp and paper. The metal and engineering industries have developed rapidly and today are the largest source of industrial employment. The chemical, graphics, and food industries are also significant to the economy, followed by textile and electrochemical enterprises. Mining activity has decreased in importance, although Finland still produces one-half of the copper and nickel needed for the domestic market. Power Largely because Finnish industry, particularly the forest industry, is energy intensive, Finland's energy consumption is one of the highest per capita in the world. Of this energy, 44% is supplied by imported oil and coal and 11% by imports of natural gas and electricity. Four nuclear power plants furnish another 16%; 11% is supplied by hydropower, 3% by peat, and 15% by other indigenous fuels. Agriculture In 1960, 30% of Finland's work force was engaged in farming; by 1990 the figure was less than 10%, and only 7% of the total land area was cultivated. Nevertheless, the agricultural sector produces a surplus of dairy products, meat, and eggs. Wheat and rye are the most important bread grains; other major crops include hay, potatoes, oats, and barley. Finland's climate and small farms favor dairy and livestock production, which account for most of the farm income. The problems created by overproduction have led to soil banking (a policy of purposely leaving farmland uncultivated) and reforestation. Forestry Forests cover about 65% of the total land area, or about 26.4 million ha (65.2 million acres), of which 20 million ha (49.4 million acres) are productive. Since the 1950s large-scale swamp drainage, fertilizing, and reforestation have improved production. The state owns 20% of the forests; the rest are privately controlled. Owners of small farms work in the forests during winter, but mechanization has reduced the need for this seasonal work force. Transportation Roads are the leading means of transportation in Finland. Automobiles number about 360 per 1,000 inhabitants. Railways connect the country with Sweden and the USSR, and Helsinki has a subway system. In the past, waterborne traffic was hampered by frozen rivers and harbors during the winter, but the use of icebreakers has eased this problem. Trade Finland is dependent on foreign trade. Although exports are diverse, forest products and metal and engineering products account for more than three-fourths of the total value of exported goods. Raw materials represent nearly half of the total value of imports; next in importance are consumer goods and investment goods; fuels and crude oil make up the remainder. Finland is an associated member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), but most of its trade is with the nations of the European Community (EC). GOVERNMENT The Finnish constitution was adopted in 1919. Finland is a republic, headed by a president elected for a 6-year term. The president is normally chosen by the general electorate (all citizens over 18), but if no candidate receives a majority vote, the winner is picked by a 301-member electoral college. Supreme executive power is vested in the president, who is responsible for the country's foreign relations. Legislative power is shared by the president and the one-chamber parliament of 200 members. The council of state (cabinet), which is headed by a prime minister, is responsible for the country's general administration. Judicial power is vested in independent courts of justice. the country is divided into municipalities. The unit of local government is the commune. HISTORY The first settlements in Finland were probably made by people moving east after the Ice Age and date back to about 7000 BC. It is believed that the Finns are descendants of these original settlers and others who migrated into the area in the following millennia. Beginning in the 12th century, Sweden gradually conquered Finland and introduced Christianity to the Finns. The Pahkinansaari peace treaty in 1323 established the boundary between Sweden and Novgorod, the Russian power to the east. In the 16th century, as Sweden consolidated its authority in Finland, Lutheranism was proclaimed the official religion. The peace treaty of Stolbovo (1617) gave Sweden the eastern parts of Finland and Inkerinmaa (Ingria). These, however, were lost to Russia in the Uudenkaupunki peace treaty (Treaty of Nystad) in 1721. During the 18th century a growing separatist movement in Finland demanded independence. As a result of the war of 1808-09, Sweden surrendered Finland to Russia. Finland became an autonomous grand duchy with the tsar assuming the title grand duke of Finland. The Russian governor-general represented the supreme executive power, and Finland was allowed to retain its old constitution. It had its own parliament, government, administration, law and courts, postal services, army (until 1904), and currency. In 1906 the Finnish diet was replaced by the unicameral parliament, and simultaneously universal suffrage was adopted. At times, strong attempts were made to Russianize Finland, provoking a growing desire for complete independence. After the Russian Revolution of November (N.S.) 1917, Finland declared its independence on Dec. 6, 1917. Civil war broke out in 1918, with Soviet-supported Communist troops fighting German-supported non-Communists, the latter led by Carl Gustaf Emil MANNERHEIM. In 1920 peace was concluded with the USSR following a territorial war over KARELIA, but relations between the two countries remained cool. By the outbreak of World War II, Finland had adopted a policy of neutrality, and when the USSR demanded Finnish territory and military bases for defense against Germany, Finland refused. On Nov. 30, 1939, Soviet troops invaded Finland, beginning the RUSSO-FINNISH WAR. In March 1940, by the Treaty of Moscow, Finland ceded Karelian territories to the USSR. When Germany invaded the USSR in 1941, Finland reoccupied its former territories. In 1944, however, Soviet troops staged a counterinvasion, and by the armistice signed in September 1944, Finland was forced to cede the Karelian Isthmus and other eastern lands, the corridor in the extreme north to the Barents Sea, and to grant a 50-year lease to a military base at Porkkala. The USSR returned the military base in 1955 in exchange for the renewal of a friendship treaty signed in 1948. Since World War II, Finland has maintained a careful neutrality, often with special regard to the USSR, its powerful neighbor to the east. Finland's policy of neutrality was largely formulated by Urho Kaleva KEKKONEN, who served as president from 1956 until 1982. It was reaffirmed by Mauno KOIVISTO upon his election to the presidency in 1982. The end of the East-West cold war in 1989-90 and the relaxation of Soviet control over Eastern Europe opened up possibilities for changes in Finland's external relations. Although President Koivisto opposed the idea, many Finns favored seeking entry into the EC, especially after Sweden applied for EC membership in 1991. Toive Aartolahti Reviewed by Ritva Poom Bibliography: Arter, David, Politics and Policy-Making in Finland (1987); Engman, Max, and Kirby, David, eds., Finland: People, Nation State (1989); Kirby, D. G., Finland in the 20th Century (1980); Pentikainen, Juha, Kalevala Mythology, trans. by R. Poom (1990); Singleton, Fred, A Short History of Finland (1990). TITLE: Finland OFFICIAL NAME.Republic of Finland LAND.Area: 338,145 sq km (130,559 sq mi).Capital and largest city: Helsinki (1989 pop., 485,800). PEOPLE.Population (1988 est.): 4,954,359.Density (1988 est.): 15 persons per sq km (39 per sq mi).Distribution (1989 est.): 62% urban, 38% rural.Annual growth (1980-87): 0.5%.Official languages: Finnish, Swedish.Major religion: Evangelical Lutheranism. EDUCATION AND HEALTH.Literacy (1989): 99% of adult population.Universities (1989): 10.Hospital beds (1988): 66,616.Physicians (1988): 9,614.Life expectancy (1987): women--78.7; men--70.7.Infant mortality (1987): 6.2 per 1,000 live births. ECONOMY.GNP (1988): $92 billion; $18,610 per capita.Labor distribution (1990): agriculture and forestry--10%; industry and construction--30%; services--60%; unemployed (1988 average)--4.6%. Foreign trade (1990); imports--$33.0 billion; exports--$31.1 billion; principal trade partners--Sweden, Germany, USSR, United Kingdom.Currency: 1 markaa = 100 pennia. GOVERNMENT.Type: republic.Government leaders (1992): Mauno Koivisto--president; Esko Aho--premier.Legislature: Eduskunta.Political subdivisions: 12 provinces. COMMUNICATIONS.Railroads (1989): 5,863 km (3,643 mi)) total.Roads (1990): 45,696 km (28,394 mi) paved; 30,675 km (19,060 mi) unpaved.Major ports: 12.Major airfields: 20. Map Location[s] Tenojoki, Cunasjoki, Kemijoki, Kyron, Ivalo, Rovaniemi, Kemi, Oulu, Kajaani, Iisalmi, Kokkola, Vaasa, Jyvaskyla, Koupib, Joensuu, Mikkeli, Lappeenranta, Lahti, Tampere, Pori, Raums, Hameenlinna, Turku, Kouvola, Kotka, Helsinki. Iceland, Norway, Finland, Sweden, Soviet Union, Poland, Denmark, Germany, Netherlands, Belgium, United Kingdom, Ireland, Luxembourg, France, Spain, Portugal, Gibraltar, Malta, Switzerland, Andorra, Italy, Vatican City, San Marino, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Austria,